Where in the World?

Question: Where in the world would ancient noblewomen channel prophecies by inhaling the fumes of a slain snake’s rotting corpse?

Answer: The Temple of Apollo in Delphi, Greece

Near the Gulf of Corinth, on the slopes of Mount Parnassus, within the hallowed confines of the ancient Greek Temple of Apollo in Delphi, an enigmatic force once really put the “high” in high priestess. 1969’s Woodstock apparently has nothing on this ancient Greek temple where, for millennia, high priestesses would regularly huff an unknown psychoactive fume that got them so euphoric that they believed they could predict the future and serve as a mouthpiece for the divine.

Scientists have a few gaseous culprits in mind, but they can’t agree on what chemical, exactly, is responsible for the “frenzy” or “trance” that purportedly overcame these prophets (although they have a strong candidate—keep reading to find out!). Meanwhile, it wasn’t up for debate for the ancient Greeks: They were certain that their oracles were inhaling vapors from the rotting corpse of a serpent slain by Apollo himself.

As the god of prophecy, ancient Greeks saw Apollo as an omnipotent source of guidance, and several religious sanctuaries across Greece were established as sites for “oracles” of Apollo—but the Oracle of Delphi developed into the most well-known and influential of all. Originally a shrine to Gaea—the earth goddess—the temple at Delphi was dedicated to Apollo by the eighth century BC and became the most sacred sanctuary of all for the ancient Greeks. They considered it the center of the world, marking the site with a large conical stone called the omphalos (meaning navel or center).

Kings, nobles, and generals would travel great distances to consult with the Oracle of Delphi—a high priestess known as the Pythia. The Pythia were originally young virgins but, after trouble with kidnappings, it was decided to instead use an older woman (ancient sources state that she had to be a local woman, over the age of 50, who had lived a good life). The Oracle of Delphi reached the height of her fame between about the eighth and fourth centuries BC—when Apollo’s advice or sanction was frequently sought by lawmakers, colonists, founders of cults, and more.

According to legend, Apollo slew a resident monster at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, claiming the site as his own before leaving the snake’s body “to rot” in the sun. From then on, the fumes of the decaying corpse were inhaled by the Pythia to transform themselves into a medium through which Apollo could speak. This story is believed to be the root of both the archaic name for Delphi (Pytho) and the Pythia herself (the Greek verb puthein means “to rot”).

The Pythia was undoubtedly a powerful figure in Ancient Greek society: Since the Pythia was said to communicate directly with Apollo, she was incredibly influential—so much so that several wars were waged over the oracle, with control of Delphi shifting between rival city-states. Her answers could determine when farmers planted their fields, when an empire declared war, the outcome of projected wars or political actions, and more.

Luckily for modern historians, ancient Greek historians left behind quite a bit of information on the Pythia’s spiritual practices. One such ancient Greek historian was none other than the legendary Plutarch, who served as a sanctuary priest for the temple of Apollo at Delphi sometime around 95 AD.

Thus, we know that the Pythia and her consultants first bathed in the Castalian spring and drank from a sacred spring, Cassotis, before the oracle entered the temple. She then descended into a specific basement-like room inside the Temple called the adyton. There, she mounted a sacred bronze tripod, chewed leaves of the laurel (Apollo’s sacred tree), and inhaled the mysterious fumes. According to Plutarch, the Pythia would enter a trance after inhaling “sweet-smelling, noxious fumes,” which he said were coming from deep fissures underneath the temple. Strabo, an ancient geographer and historian, referred to these vapors as pneuma (the ancient Greek word for gas but also breath and spirit).

Whatever the fumes were, it wouldn’t take long before the vapors caused the Pythia to enter an ecstatic state of frenzy and start “channeling” Apollo. Ancient sources claim she would only spew incoherent words and statements (gibberish, basically) which were not directly recorded by the inquirer; instead, they were considered opaque prophecies that were to be interpreted and written down by the priests in what was often highly ambiguous verse.

Fast forward to the present, and Plutarch’s claims about that “sweet-smelling” fume provide a lot of direction for modern scientists when it comes to developing theories about what the Pythia were huffing. Greece sits at the confluence of three tectonic plates, and the shifting of these plates continually stretches and uplifts the area, which is riddled with faults that can release quite a few psychoactive gases.

So, what particular gas were the Pythia were inhaling? Between 1892 and 1950, multiple expeditions conducted by French archaeologists and geologists—as well as assessments by visiting scholars—consistently failed to uncover any evidence supporting the notion of intoxicating vapors emanating from the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. Despite thorough excavations and geological surveys, no clefts, large fissures, or signs of volcanic activity were discovered.

For a while, scientists agreed that the “sweet-smelling” fumes or pneuma that the Pythia purportedly inhaled was just another case of Plutarch and his fellow ancient Greek historians embellishing a tale. But then, in 1996, thanks to a drunken conversation between a geologist and archaeologist—Dr. de Boer and Dr. John R. Hale—another scientific investigation was launched. This time, there were promising findings: Contrary to the previous consensus, the two scientists not only found a fault running east to west beneath the oracle's temple, but they also discovered a second fault running north to south. To their amazement, these two faults seemed to intersect right under the Temple of Apollo in Delphi.

Even better, the scientists also detected levels of ethylene here, which checked two boxes: Ethylene is a sweet-smelling hydrocarbon gas, and it can cause intoxication when inhaled—in fact, it induces hallucinogenic symptoms that match Plutarch’s descriptions. The narcotic effect it produces has been described as a floating or disembodied euphoria, an altered mental status, and a pleasant sensation. At low doses, people have altered speech patterns. At high doses, they thrash, groan, and stagger.

However, several scientists have poked holes in the ethylene theory. For one, water samples taken from the Kerna spring uphill of the temple had a concentration of 0.3 parts per million (ppm) of ethylene, and those concentrations are nowhere near large enough to cause hallucinations—in fact, 0.3 ppm is about the same as what drivers get in typical urban traffic. The levels of ethylene are indeed so low that the water table there is safe enough to be tapped and siphoned above the temple to supply the modern town of Delphi.

That said, it’s entirely possible that the concentration of the vapors has become weaker—possibly because the absence of a major earthquake has failed to keep Earth's “narcotic” juices flowing. Runner-ups in the volcanic fumes theory include carbon dioxide (i.e. oxygen deprivation), methane, and benzene (to name a few). However, like ethylene, these gaseous culprits are innocent until proven guilty—and the evidence just isn’t there yet.

6 Fun Facts About the Pythia, the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, and Ethylene:

• There was a strict hierarchy in terms of the order in which people were seen by the Pythia: Those at the front of the queue had what was known as promanteis. This included citizens of Delphi and people who had a special connection to the site. Next came citizens of states with a representative in the Amphictyony council, followed by all other Greeks. Foreigners came last. Interestingly, despite being a female-centered sanctuary, women were prohibited from entry.
• It wasn’t free to consult with the Pythia: All consultants had to pay a fee (which varied according to their status) and offer a pelanos, a type of sacrificial cake. They also had to burn an offering to all the gods and the people of Delphi before their turn came and offer a sacrificial beast that conformed to rigid physical standards. The way in which the animal behaved or even the color of its entrails would be used as an indication of any portents.
• The Oracle of Delphi was only available for consultations on one day of each month for nine months of the year: This meant that visitors only had nine opportunities to seek advice from Apollo per year. Consultations were normally restricted to the seventh day of the Delphic month, Apollo’s birthday, and were at first banned during the three winter months when Apollo was believed to be visiting the Hyperboreans in the north, though Dionysus later took Apollo’s place at Delphi during that time. Talk about booking in advance!
• Ethylene isn’t an uncommon chemical: In fact, it’s the same gas that bananas emit as they ripen, and that’s used to make green tomatoes turn red. From the 1930's to the 1970's, ethylene was even used for general anesthesia.
• Some of the most famous names in history came to see the Pythia: Among the more consequential predictions involved Croesus, the king of Lydia in the 6th century BCE. Lycurgus, the founder of Sparta’s highly efficient military regime, is said to have received advice from the Pythia. The reformer of Athenian politics and father of democracy, Solon, also visited Delphi for instructions. Kings of great realms—such as Alexander the Great—also graced the oracle with their presence. In its later years, Roman emperors also visited the Oracle of Delphi. Emperor Nero visited Delphi sometime after 54 AD and took part in the Pythian games. Emperor Hadrian, a great admirer of Greek culture, consulted the Oracle in 125 AD.
• Pythian power eventually began to wane, especially after Rome captured Delphi in the early 2nd century BC: The Delphic oracle’s last prophecy was reportedly delivered about 393 AD, before the Roman emperor Theodosius I instituted various laws to end pagan activity and destroyed the temple in the name of Christianity.

Visit Temple of Apollo in Delphi during our Enhanced! The Aegean Islands, Athens & Istanbul adventure.